FIFTH PERIOD.

(1860-1865)

THE CIVIL WAR IN OKLAHOMA.

The Indian Territory at the Outbreak of the Civil War. —The dawning of the Civil War was a most unhappy event for the Indians of the civilized tribes. With the exception of the Seminoles, they had all been at peace with the white men for nearly fifty years and some of the tribes had been friendly for more than twice that long. Most of them were farmers. They raised fields of grain and cotton, owned herds of horses, cattle and hogs. Many of them owned negro slwes by whom much of the field labor was done. The life of the Indians was simple and care-free and their few wants were easily supplied. They wanted to remain at peace. They had no desire to take part in this trouble, which they rightfully called a White Man’s quarrel. They had been friendly with the government of the United States so long that they were loath to make any change. On the other hand, all of these tribes had come from the South. Many of their customs and habits were peculiar to the South and many of their people were related by ties of marriage and blood to the people of the South. For these reasons they felt that duty called for a new alliance, even though their friendship for the government of the United States was strong.

The Beginning of the War in the Indian Territory.— The first events in the Civil War in Oklahoma were the abandonment of the military posts by the troops of the United States Army. Most of these posts were abandoned within a month after Fort Sumter had been fired upon, the Federal troops marching north under the command of Col. William H. Emory. Each post was promptly occupied by Confederate forces as soon as the Federal troops were withdrawn. Thus, the Indian Territory virtually passed into the control of the Confederates right at the outbreak of the war. On May 13, 1861, the Confederate Military District of the Indian Territory was established and Gen. Benjamin McCulloch was assigned as its commander.

The Confederate Government Seeks Friendship of the Indians. — The newly organized Confederate Government took steps to win the friendship of the Indians of the civilized tribes as well as to secure and hold military control of the Indian Territory. Efforts were made to induce all of the tribes to enter into treaties of friendship and alliance.

Confederate Treaties with Indian Tribes.— Albert Pike, as commissioner of the Confederate States, met the representatives of the Choctaw, Chickasaw, Creek, and Seminole Nations at North Fork Town (Eufaula) July 10-12 and August 1, 1861, and negotiated formal treaties of friendship and alliance with each of those tribes. The Cherokees acted with much less haste and it was not until the 7th of the following October that they entered into a formal treaty with the Confederate States. Commissioner Pike also induced a number of other tribes and parts of tribes to sign similar treaties.

Changed Relations. —By entering into treaties with the Confederate States, the Indians of the civilized tribes were regarded as enemies of the United States, with which most of them had been living at peace for many years. Few of them could foresee the probable consequences of the war which was to follow or its possible effect upon them. The general histories of that great conflict scarcely mention the campaigns and battles which took place in the Indian Territory. Compared with the greater campaigns and battles between larger armies in other parts of the South, the events of the Civil War in the Indian Territory may seem unimportant. However, the war was as brutal, as cruel, as destructive and as wasteful in the Indian Territory as it was in any part of the South and the people of the civilized tribes learned that, if it was a white Man’s quarrel, it also became a source of the Red Man’s woe.

Flight of the Tribes on the Washita. —The greater part of the Indians of the Caddo, Wichita and other tribes, which had been settled on the new reservations on the Washita River only a year and a half before, abandoned their homes and fled northward across the Kansas line shortly after the Federal garrison was withdrawn from Fort Cobb.

Military Activities in the Indian Territory. —After making treaties with nearly all of the tribes in the Indian Territory, the work of organizing Indian troops for service in the Confederate Army was pushed as rapidly as possible. General Albert Pike was placed in command of these Indian troops, in November, 1861.

Tribes Divided by the War. —Not all of the Indians of the civilized tribes were willing to accept the alliance with the Confederate States to which their chiefs and counselors had agreed. Although the Federal Government had with-draw^n its troops from the Indian Territory and had failed to fulfill its treaty agreements (including the payment of annuity moneys), many of the Cherokee, Creek, and Seminole Indians remained firm in their attachment to the Union. Late in November, 1861, about 2,500 of these Indians gathered under the leadership of Opothleyohola (o-poth’-le-yo-ho’la).

The First Battle. —The followers of Opothleyohola were poorly fitted for a campaign as they were not organized and were scantily provided with arms, ammunition and provisions. They were also encumbered by their families. When they attempted to leave the Territory and move northward to Kansas, they were followed by a Confederate Indian force of about 1,500 men under the command of Col. Douglas H. Cooper. The Union Indians were overtaken at a point north of the Cimarron River, within the present limits of Osage County, where a battle was fought on the evening of November 19, 1861. It ended in a victory for the attacking Confederates.

Union Indians Again Defeated. —After gathering up his scattered followers Opothleyohola attacked Colonel Cooper’s command at Chusto-Talasah (chtis’-to-ta-la’-sa) on Bird Creek (in Osage County), December 9, 1861. In the hot fight which followed, the Union Indians were defeated and driven off. Colonel Cooper then withdrew his command to Tulsey Town (Tulsa). Nearly two weeks later, Colonel Cooper’s command was reinforced by a brigade of Arkansas and Texas troops under Col. James McIntosh. The Union Indians were found and attacked on Shoal Creek on December 26. In this fight, which was called the battle of Chus-tenahla (chiis’-ten-ah’-la) the Union Indians were again defeated and scattered.

A Winter of Suffering.—The Indians who had thus openly avowed their attachment to the Union were nearly all driven north of the Kansas line late in December and early in January, 1862. The weather was bitterly cold. The Indians were accompanied by their families. Few of them had tents or shelter of any kind. Most of them were scantily clothed, many were without shoes, and food was scarce. The sufferings of these refugees during the winter of 1861-2 were almost indescribable. Sickness followed exposure and hunger, and hundreds of the refugees died.

The Battle of Pea Ridge and Its Effect.—The first event of importance in 1862 was the Battle of Pea Ridge. The Confederate forces under the command of Gen. Albert Pike were marched across the line into Arkansas to take part in a campaign under Generals Price and Van Dorn. At the Battle of Pea Ridge, the Confederates were defeated by the Union forces under the command of Gen. R. S. Curtis. The effect of this battle on the Indian troops in the Confederate service was demoralizing.

Federal Activity in the Indian Territory. —Soon after the Union victory at Pea Ridge, E. H. Carruth, Federal commissioner to the Indian tribes of the Indian Territory, addressed letters to the leaders and chiefs of each of the civilized tribes, urging them to renew their alliance and friendly relations with the Federal Government. Three Indian regiments were also organized for the Union service in the Indian Territory.
The Three Indian Regiments were designated respectively as the First, Second and Third Regiments of the Indian Home Guard. The Indian Brigade, thus organized, continued in the active service until the end of the War, Col. Robert W. Furnas, who was afterward governor of Nebraska, was the first commander of the Indian Brigade.

Cherokee Country Invaded by Union Troops. —June 22, 1862, a force of 5,600 Union troops (including three Indian regiments) under command of Col. William Wier, marched southward from Humboldt, Kansas, and entered the Cherokee country. The only opposition to the advance of this force was that of Col. Stand Watie’s Cherokee regiment. Gen. Albert Pike, who was in command of the Confederate military district of the Indian Territory, maintained his headquarters and held most of his force at Fort McCulloch, on the Blue River, in the southwestern part of the Choctaw country, although repeatedly ordered by General Hindman, department commander, to move them northward for the protection of the Cherokee country. General Pike finally resigned, and, when relieved of his command, was temporarily succeeded by Col. Douglas H. Cooper. Colonel Cooper at once advanced his command to the Arkansas River, where it was united with that of Col. Stand Watie. At the same time a Confederate force of five regiments, under General Rains, moved northwestward into the Cherokee country from Fort Smith. The Federal forces thereupon retired northward into Kansas.

The Tonkawa Massacre. —Of the tribes which had settled on the Washita in 1859, the Tonkawas alone had remained attached to the Confederate Indian Agency, near Fort Cobb. While the Tonkawas were encamped near Anadarko, one night in October, 1862, they were attacked by a raiding party of Union Indians, including members of the Delaware, Creek, Shawnee, Kickapoo and possibly other tribes, and the greater part of the Tonkawas were killed.

Second Federal Invasion. —The Kansas division of the Army of the Frontier, under command of Gen. James G. Blunt, attacked the Confederate forces under command of Col. Douglas H. Cooper, at Old Fort Wayne, in the Cherokee country (near Maysville, Arkansas), October 22, 1862. The battle resulted in a victory for the Union forces, the Confederate troops retreating in great haste, westward, by way of Fort Gibson, across the Arkansas River, to Fort Davis. Fort Gibson was occupied by a force of Federal troops (3d Indian Regiment) under command of Col. William A. Phillips, November 9. From that time on, to the end of the war, Fort Gibson remained in the hands of the Federal forces and was the base from which all of their operations in the Indian Territory were performed.

Dual Tribal Government. —While the Federal forces were occupying the Cherokee country, Colonel Cooper sent a message to John Ross, in the name of the president of the Confederate states, demanding that he issue a proclamation calling on all Cherokee Indians between the ages of eighteen and thirty-five to enroll themselves in the Confederate military service. Ross failed to do so. When the Federal forces retired northward, a national convention of the (Confederate) Cherokees was held, at which John Ross

OLD COMMISSARY BUILDING, FORT GIBSON

was declared to be deposed from the office of principal chief and Stand Watie was named to succeed him. Ross left the Territory, going to washiiigton to renew the treaty with the Federal Government.
From the fall of 1862 until the end of the War, the Cherokee people were divided into two parties, and had two tribal governments, the one headed by John Ross, and the other headed by Stand Watie.

General Steele in Command of Confederate Forces. — Early in January, 1803, Gen. william Steele was assigned to the command of the Confederate forces in the Indian Territory. Not much was done during the first half of the year by either army. Gen. Douglas H. Cooper’s Indian Brigade crossed the Arkansas River near Fort Gibson, May 20, to capture the cattle and horses of the Federal garrison stationed at that post. The Federal commander, Col. William A. Phillips, was taken by surprise. He promptly attacked the Confederates. The fight was a hard one and for some time the result was in doubt. The Union troops were finally reinforced and the Confederates retired. The loss in killed and wounded was severe on both sides. Ten days later the Confederates attacked a supply train, en route from Fort Scott, a few miles from Fort Gibson. The military escort of the supply train having been newly reinforced, the attacking Confederates were repulsed, leaving thirty-five of their number dead on the field.

Battle of Honey Springs. —On July 16th occurred the Battle of Honey Springs. A Confederate brigade, under Gen. Douglas H. Cooper, was encamped at Honey Springs, on Elk Creek, about three miles east of Checotah. Gen. James G. Blunt, at the head of a Federal force of about 3,000 troops, with two batteries of artillery, crossed the Arkansas River above the mouth of the Verdigris and moved to attack Cooper’s camp. The battle began about ten o:clock in the morning and raged fiercely for several hours. The result was a victory for the Union troops. General Cooper retired south of the Canadian River with his command.

The Perryville Expedition. —In the latter part of August, 1863, Gen. James G. Blunt fitted out an expedition of 4,500 men at Fort Gibson for the purpose of taking the field against the Confederate army of General Steele, which had concentrated south of the Canadian River, on the Texas Road (east of the present town of Canadian, in Pittsburg County). When the expedition arrived at the site of the Confederate encampment, it was found to have been abandoned. General Blunt’s command marched on down the Texas Road as far as Perryville, where the Confederate supply depot was captured and destroyed. The Federal commander then marched his forces back to Fort Gibson.

Capture of Fort Smith. —Immediately after returning from the Perryville expedition, General Blunt organized another expedition with which he descended the Arkansas and captured Fort Smith, September 1, 1863. Fort Smith had long been regarded as a goal by Union commanders in planning campaigns for the Southwest and its capture was counted as a decisive gain by them.

A New Confederate Commander. —Because of the lack of harmony in the affairs of his command, Gen. Steele was relieved and Gen. Samuel B. Maxey was appointed to succeed him, December 1, 1863.

Refugee Indians. — After the permanent occupation of Forts Gibson and Smith by the Federal forces, all of that part of the Territory which was embraced in the valleys of the Arkansas and Canadian rivers became untenable for the Indians who had adhered to the Confederate cause. They were forced to seek refuge in the valley of the Red River. Like the Indians who fled to the Kansas border at the outbreak of the War, they experienced great privation and suffering, and their destitute condition added to the already hewy burdens of the Confederate military authorities.

1864

A Winter Campaign. —At the beginning of the year 1861:, the Confederate forces under the command of Gen. S. B. Maxey were stationed in the valley of Red river, at Forts Towson, McCulloch, and Washita and at Boggy Depot. On the first of February, an expedition was fitted out at Fort Gibson under Col. William A. Phillips to make a scouting campaign in the Creek, Seminole, Choctaw, and Chickasaw nations. At the mouth of Little River (in Hughes County) the infantry and the wagon train were allowed to rest, while Colonel Phillips with a force of 450 mounted men and one piece of artillery pushed on south-ward and westward nearly to Fort Washita.

Indians in an Arkansas Campaign.— In the spring of 1864, part of the Confederate troops in the Indian Territory, including Col. Tandy Walker’s brigade, which consisted of Choctaw and Chickasaw troops, were transferred to Arkansas to aid in opposing the advance of the Federal army under Gen. Frederick Steele from Little Rock to Camden. Colonel Walker’s Indian Brigade particularly distinguished itself at the Battle of Poison Spring, Arkansas (April 18) where it captured a wagon train and a battery of artillery.

Capture of a Federal Supply Steamer.— June 15, 1864, Lee’s battery of Confederate artillery (Cherokee) which was attached to the command of Gen. Stand Watie, fired upon and finally captured the steamboat “G. H. Williams,” as it was passing Pheasant Bluff (near the mouth of the Canadian) on its way up the Arkansas River from Fort Smith to Fort Gibson.

Federal Wagon Train Captured. — One of the most notable events of the Civil war in the Indian Territory was the capture of a large train of wagons loaded with supplies for Fort Gibson, by a force of 2,000 Confederate troops belonging to the brigades of Generals R. M. Gano and Stand Watie, at Cabin Creek, on the military road between Fort Scott and Fort Gibson, September 17, 1864. 300 wagons filled with military supplies, and nearly 1,300 horses and mules fell into the hands of the Confederates as the result of this exploit.

1865

A Season of Inactivity. —During the last winter of the Civil War there was but little done by the troops of either side in the Indian Territory It was generally believed that the War was drawing to a close. General Maxey having retired from the command of the Confederate troops in the Indian Territory, was succeeded by Gen. Douglas H. Cooper.

An Indian Peace Compact. —For some time before the end of the War, the Indians of the civilized tribes who sided with the Confederacy had been seeking to arrange a general council with the Indians of the wild tribes of the Southern Plains region. It was proposed to hold such a council at Council Grove, on the North Canadian River (six miles west of Oklahoma City) on May 1, 1865. For some reason it was postponed and was finally held at Camp Napoleon, on the Washita, May 26, 1865. Three weeks later the principal chiefs of the Creek and Seminole Nations joined in an address urging all Indian tribes and bands, regardless of the part they had taken during the War, to drop all past differences and join in the peace compact which had been adopted at the Camp Napoleon council.

The Dawn of Peace. —Gen. Edmund Kirby Smith, commander of the Trans-Mississippi Department of the Confederate Army, surrendered to Gen. Edward E. S. Canby, of the United States Army, May 26, 1865. In the Indian Territory, Gen. Douglas H. Cooper carried out the terms agreed upon between General Canby and Gen. Kirby Smith, in so far as the white troops of his command were concerned, but stated that it would be impracticable and even dangerous for him to attempt to surrender the Indian troops. The latter claimed to have entered the War as independent allies of the Confederacy, and reserved the right to treat directly with the United States government for the return of peace. The Cherokee troops under Gen. Stand Watie, were surrendered to Lieut. Col. Asa C. Matthews, (99th Illinois Volunteer Infantry) at Doaksville (near Fort Towson) June 23. The Choctaws, through their principal chief, Peter P. Pitchlynn, also agreed to surrender at the same time and place. The peace terms by which the Chickasaws agreed to quit fighting were signed by Governor Winchester Colbert about two weeks later—nearly three months after the surrender of the Confederate Army of Northern Virginia by General Lee.

Results of the War in the Indian Territory. —The close of the Civil War found the Indian Territory in a most unhappy state. Its people were divided into two parties, between which bitterest hatred existed. Outlaws overran the country and the old feud between the treaty and anti-treaty parties in the Cherokee and Creek nations had been so intensified by four years of warfare that there was a feeling of determination on each side that the other should not be allowed to return home. For some time, indeed, military authority was necessary to preserve order. The Choctaw and Chickasaw nations having been almost unanimous in their support of the Confederacy, there was very little factional trouble within their boundaries.

A Peace Council Called.— June 18, 1865, Peter P. Pitchlynn, principal chief of the Choctaw Nation, issued a proclamation calling for a general peace council of all the tribes of the Indian Territory to convene September 1, at Armstrong Academy, in the Choctaw Nation. It was proposed to meet the commissioners of the United States for the purpose of renewing the treaties which had been abrogated by the several tribes at the outbreak of the war. The war being at an end, the Indians were naturally anxious as to the terms upon which new treaties might be made. The general council of the Indians of the tribes residing in the Indian Territory was held at Fort Smith, Arkansas, in September 1865.

Pitchlymi’s Proclamation. —After reciting the existing conditions and urging that all tribes be represented in the council, the proclamation concluded as follows: “It therefore becomes us as a brave people to forget and lay aside our prejudices and prove ourselves equal to the occasion. Let reason obtain now that the sway of passion has passed, and let us meet in council with a proper spirit, and resume our former relations with the United States government.”

Peace Conditions. —At this council the Indians were informed that those tribes which had entered into treaties of alliance with the late Confederate government had forfeited all of their old rights of consideration and protection from the government of the United States, and that their property was subject to confiscation. They were given to understand, however, that the Government did not wish to be harsh, but that it would insist upon some conditions to which these tribes would have to agree before their former treaty relations could be renewed. These conditions included the abolition of slavery, and the union of all the tribes in the Indian Territory into one commonwealth with a territorial form of government. The former negro slaves of the Indians were also to be accorded full tribal rights. To some of these conditions several of the tribes strongly objected and, after a fruitless session of thirteen days, the council adjourned September 21, to meet in Washington, D. C, the next year.

Summary. —The result of the Civil War was pathetic from any viewpoint, but from none more than that of the people of the Indian Territory. With homes and belongings destroyed, farms laid waste, stock driven away, and owners compelled to flee for refuge, the story of ruin seems almost complete. Added to this was the presence and activity of a lawless element which knew no feeling of loyal attachment to either side, but plundered and robbed from the people of both sides as occasion offered. If this picture is not dark enough, it is only necessary to investigate the criminally dishonest business methods of the contractors who furnished supplies for the dependent Indians, and to read the record of bickering and jealousy which distinguished rival aspirants for military promotion in both armies. In short, the story of the Civil War in the Indian Territory is not one which inspires the heart of a white man with a feeling of pride in his race. In striking contrast with such a picture of human selfishness and unworthiness are the heroic figures of some leaders in both armies who acted from motives of sincerest patriotism. Moreover, the patience and fortitude with which the mass of the Indian people endured hardships and privations, is one of which the people of any commonwealth might well be proud.

SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS

Fifth Period.

1. Tell why the Civil War was a most unwelcome event to the Indians of the five civilized tribes.

2. Who negotiated treaties with the Indian tribes, as commissioner for the Confederate States? Who was the first commander of the Confederate forces in the Indian Territory?

3. What military posts were garrisoned at the outbreak of the Civil W^ar? Why were they abandoned?

4. Which tribes were almost unanimous in their sympathy with and adherence to the Southern cause? In which tribes were the sentiment and preferences of the people divided? Why did the tribes which hesitated at first, finally enter into treaties of alliance with the Confederacy?

5. What Indian leader remained steadfast in his devotion to the Union? Tell something of his campaign in the latter part of 1861. Where did the Indians who remained loyal to the Union seek refuge? Tell something of their sufferings.

6. In what battle in Arkansas did the Indian Confederate troops take part in 1862? What effect did it have on the Indians? When did the Federal forces first enter the Indian Territory?

7. When did the second Federal invasion take place? Who was in command of the Federal forces? Tell of the battle of Fort Wayne. Who captured Fort Gibson from the Confederates?

8. Tell of the division of the Cherokee Indians. Who was elected as chief by the Confederate Cherokees? Tell about the reorganization of the Cherokee tribal government under Federal protection, wliat action did its council take with reference to slwery?

9. Who was in command of the Union forces at Fort Gibson almost continuously from 1862 until 1865? What Cherokee Indian became a brigadier general in the Confederate service?

10. Why were the Indian troops not included in the surrender of the Confederate forces in Oklahoma at the close of the War? By whom were they finally surrendered? Tell about the conditions existing in the Indian Territory at the end of the War?

11. Where was the general peace council held? When? What were the peace conditions imposed by the Government? Why were they not accepted at the time?

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